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Gene Therapy

Dimulai oleh biobio, Desember 03, 2011, 10:59:57 AM

« sebelumnya - berikutnya »

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biobio

1. At A Glance!
Gene therapy is the insertion, alteration, or removal of genes within an individual's cells and biological tissues to treat disease. It is a technique for correcting defective genes that are responsible for disease development. (Notes on Gene Therapy, [pranala luar disembunyikan, sila masuk atau daftar.])The most common form of gene therapy involves the insertion of functional genes into an unspecified genomic location in order to replace a mutated gene, but other forms involve directly correcting the mutation or modifying normal gene that enables a viral infection. Although the technology is still in its infancy, it has been used with some success. (Kamimura K, Suda T, Zhang G, et al., 2011)

2. Development
1970s and earlier =In 1972 Friedmann and Roblin authored a paper in Science titled "Gene therapy for human genetic disease?" ( Friedmann, T, Roblin, R., 1972)  They cite Rogers S for proposing "that exogenous 'good'" DNA be used to replace the defective DNA in those who suffer from genetic defects. (Rogers S, New Sci. 1970, p. 194) They also cite the first attempt to perform gene therapy as (New York Times, 20 September 1970)

1990s =
The first approved gene therapy case in the United States took place on September 14, 1990, at the National Institute of Health. It was performed on a four year old girl named Ashanti DaSilva. It was a treatment for a genetic defect that left her with an immune system deficiency. The effects were only temporary, but successful (Boylan 313).

New gene therapy approach repairs errors in messenger RNA derived from defective genes. This technique has the potential to treat the blood disorder thalassaemia, cystic fibrosis, and some cancers. Researchers at Case Western Reserve University and Copernicus Therapeutics are able to create tiny liposomes 25 nanometers across that can carry therapeutic DNA through pores in the nuclear membrane. (New Scientist)

Sickle cell disease is successfully treated in mice. (Fisher, Jennifer. "Murine Gene Therapy Corrects Symptoms of Sickle Cell Disease - The Scientist - Magazine of the Life Sciences")

in 1992 Doctor Claudio Bordignon working at the Vita-Salute San Raffaele University, Milan, Italy performed the first procedure of gene therapy using hematopoietic stem cells as vectors to deliver genes intended to correct hereditary diseases. (Abbott, A., 1992). In 2002 this work led to the publication of the first successful gene therapy treatment for adenosine deaminase-deficiency (SCID). The success of a multi-center trial for treating children with SCID (severe combined immune deficiency or "bubble boy" disease) held from 2000 and 2002 was questioned when two of the ten children treated at the trial's Paris center developed a leukemia-like condition. Clinical trials were halted temporarily in 2002, but resumed after regulatory review of the protocol in the United States, the United Kingdom, France, Italy, and Germany.
"The pen is mightier than the sword"

biobio


In 1993 Andrew Gobea was born with severe combined immunodeficiency (SCID). Genetic screening before birth showed that he had SCID. Blood was removed from Andrew's placenta and umbilical cord immediately after birth, containing stem cells. The allele that codes for ADA was obtained and was inserted into a retrovirus. Retroviruses and stem cells were mixed, after which they entered and inserted the gene into the stem cells' chromosomes. Stem cells containing the working ADA gene were injected into Andrew's blood system via a vein. Injections of the ADA enzyme were also given weekly. For four years T-cells (white blood cells), produced by stem cells, made ADA enzymes using the ADA gene. After four years more treatment was needed.

The 1999 death of Jesse Gelsinger in a gene-therapy experiment resulted in a significant setback to gene therapy research in the United States. As a result, the U.S. FDA suspended several clinical trials pending the re-evaluation of ethical and procedural practices in the field.

2000s =
2003 = In 2003 a University of California, Los Angeles research team inserted genes into the brain using liposomes coated in a polymer called polyethylene glycol. The transfer of genes into the brain is a significant achievement because viral vectors are too big to get across the blood-brain barrier. This method has potential for treating Parkinson's disease. ("Undercover genes slip into the brain". New Scientist. 20 March 2003. [pranala luar disembunyikan, sila masuk atau daftar.])

RNA interference or gene silencing may be a new way to treat Huntington's disease. Short pieces of double-stranded RNA (short, interfering RNAs or siRNAs) are used by cells to degrade RNA of a particular sequence. If a siRNA is designed to match the RNA copied from a faulty gene, then the abnormal protein product of that gene will not be produced.

2006 = Scientists at the National Institutes of Health (Bethesda, Maryland) have successfully treated metastatic melanoma in two patients using killer T cells genetically retargeted to attack the cancer cells. This study constitutes one of the first demonstrations that gene therapy can be effective in treating cancer. (Morgan RA, Dudley ME, Wunderlich JR, et al., 2006).
In March 2006 an international group of scientists announced the successful use of gene therapy to treat two adult patients for a disease affecting myeloid cells. The study, published in Nature Medicine, is believed to be the first to show that gene therapy can cure diseases of the myeloid system.[
In May 2006 a team of scientists led by Dr. Luigi Naldini and Dr. Brian Brown from the San Raffaele Telethon Institute for Gene Therapy (HSR-TIGET) in Milan, Italy reported a breakthrough for gene therapy in which they developed a way to prevent the immune system from rejecting a newly delivered gene. Similar to organ transplantation, gene therapy has been plagued by the problem of immune rejection. So far, delivery of the 'normal' gene has been difficult because the immune system recognizes the new gene as foreign and rejects the cells carrying it. To overcome this problem, the HSR-TIGET group utilized a newly uncovered network of genes regulated by molecules known as microRNAs. Dr. Naldini's group reasoned that they could use this natural function of microRNA to selectively turn off the identity of their therapeutic gene in cells of the immune system and prevent the gene from being found and destroyed. The researchers injected mice with the gene containing an immune-cell microRNA target sequence, and the mice did not reject the gene, as previously occurred when vectors without the microRNA target sequence were used. This work will have important implications for the treatment of hemophilia and other genetic diseases by gene therapy.

In November 2006 Preston Nix from the University of Pennsylvania School of Medicine reported on VRX496, a gene-based immunotherapy for the treatment of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) that uses a lentiviral vector for delivery of an antisense gene against the HIV envelope. In the Phase I trial enrolling five subjects with chronic HIV infection who had failed to respond to at least two antiretroviral regimens, a single intravenous infusion of autologous CD4 T cells genetically modified with VRX496 was safe and well tolerated. All patients had stable or decreased viral load; four of the five patients had stable or increased CD4 T cell counts. In addition, all five patients had stable or increased immune response to HIV antigens and other pathogens. This was the first evaluation of a lentiviral vector administered in U.S. Food and Drug Administration-approved human clinical trials for any disease. Data from an ongoing Phase I/II clinical trial were presented at CROI 2009.

2007 =
On 1 May 2007 Moorfields Eye Hospital and University College London's Institute of Ophthalmology announced the world's first gene therapy trial for inherited retinal disease. The first operation was carried out on a 23 year-old British male, Robert Johnson, in early 2007. Leber's congenital amaurosis is an inherited blinding disease caused by mutations in the RPE65 gene. The results of the Moorfields/UCL trial were published in New England Journal of Medicine in April 2008. They researched the safety of the subretinal delivery of recombinant adeno associated virus (AAV) carrying RPE65 gene, and found it yielded positive results, with patients having modest increase in vision, and, perhaps more importantly, no apparent side-effects. (Maguire AM, Simonelli F, Pierce EA, et al., 2008)

2009 =

In September 2009, the journal Nature reported that researchers at the University of Washington and University of Florida were able to give trichromatic vision to squirrel monkeys using gene therapy, a hopeful precursor to a treatment for color blindness in humans. ([pranala luar disembunyikan, sila masuk atau daftar.])
In November 2009, the journal Science reported that researchers succeeded at halting a fatal brain disease, adrenoleukodystrophy, using a vector derived from HIV to deliver the gene for the missing enzyme (Kaiser, Jocelyn 2009-11-05)

2010 =
paper by Komáromy et al. published in April 2010, deals with gene therapy for a form of achromatopsia in dogs. Achromatopsia, or complete color blindness, is presented as an ideal model to develop gene therapy directed to cone photoreceptors. Cone function and day vision have been restored for at least 33 months in two young dogs with achromatopsia. However, the therapy was less efficient for older dogs.

2011 =
In 2007 and 2008, a man being treated by Gero Hütter was cured of HIV by repeated Hematopoietic stem cell transplantation (see also Allogeneic stem cell transplantation, Allogeneic bone marrow transplantation, Allotransplantation) with double-delta-32 mutation which disables the CCR5 receptor; this cure was not completely accepted by the medical community until 2011. This cure required complete ablation of existing bone marrow which is very debilitating.
"The pen is mightier than the sword"

biobio

3. Problems and Ethics!

Some of the problems of gene therapy include:

1. Short-lived nature of gene therapy – Before gene therapy can become a permanent cure for any condition, the therapeutic DNA introduced into target cells must remain functional and the cells containing the therapeutic DNA must be long-lived and stable. Problems with integrating therapeutic DNA into the genome and the rapidly dividing nature of many cells prevent gene therapy from achieving any long-term benefits. Patients will have to undergo multiple rounds of gene therapy.

2. Immune response – Anytime a foreign object is introduced into human tissues, the immune system has evolved to attack the invader. The risk of stimulating the immune system in a way that reduces gene therapy effectiveness is always a possibility. Furthermore, the immune system's enhanced response to invaders that it has seen before makes it difficult for gene therapy to be repeated in patients.

3. Problems with viral vectors – Viruses, the carrier of choice in most gene therapy studies, present a variety of potential problems to the patient —toxicity, immune and inflammatory responses, and gene control and targeting issues. In addition, there is always the fear that the viral vector, once inside the patient, may recover its ability to cause disease.

4. Multigene disorders – Conditions or disorders that arise from mutations in a single gene are the best candidates for gene therapy. Unfortunately, some of the most commonly occurring disorders, such as heart disease, high blood pressure, Alzheimer's disease, arthritis, and diabetes, are caused by the combined effects of variations in many genes. Multigene or multifactorial disorders such as these would be especially difficult to treat effectively using gene therapy.

5. Chance of inducing a tumor (insertional mutagenesis) - If the DNA is integrated in the wrong place in the genome, for example in a tumor suppressor gene, it could induce a tumor. This has occurred in clinical trials for X-linked severe combined immunodeficiency (X-SCID) patients, in which hematopoietic stem cells were transduced with a corrective transgene using a retrovirus, and this led to the development of T cell leukemia in 3 of 20 patients
"The pen is mightier than the sword"

peregrin

mantap thread-nya om biobio  ;D  tenkyu yaa

bentar, dicerna dulu ... I'll be back  8)
Free software [knowledge] is a matter of liberty, not price. To understand the concept, you should think of 'free' as in 'free speech', not as in 'free beer'. (fsf)

semut-ireng

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Stem Cell Therapy to Tackle HIV

ScienceDaily (Mar. 31, 2010) — A novel stem cell therapy that arms the immune system with an intrinsic defence against HIV could be a powerful strategy to tackle the disease.

[pranala luar disembunyikan, sila masuk atau daftar.]